A Life of Leisure? Investigating the Differential Impact of Retirement on Leisure Activity.

OBJECTIVES: Remaining active in older adulthood is widely endorsed by governments and policy-makers as a way of promoting public health and curbing welfare spending. Despite links between greater leisure activity in older adulthood and better health, cognitive function, and subjective well-being, there is a dearth of research investigating the impact of retirement on leisure activity engagement. Therefore, the primary goal of this study is to address this knowledge gap and investigate the impact of retirement on leisure activity engagement. METHODS: Using panel data from 2 waves of a large-scale longitudinal survey of Dutch older workers (N = 4,927), we investigated the impact of retirement on hours spent engaging in physical, social, and self-development activities. We further investigated the differential impact of retirement on leisure activity in retirement based on various sociodemographic characteristics. RESULTS: Although leisure activity increased across all 3 activity domains, conditional change ordinal least square regression models revealed that retirement resulted in significantly greater increases in activity relative to nonretirees. Additional analyses including interaction terms revealed that the impact of retirement on self-development and social activity differed significantly based on gender and education. DISCUSSION: Our study demonstrates that while time in leisure activity largely increases in response to retirement the nature and magnitude of the impact of retirement on leisure activity is not uniform. From a policy perspective, findings that certain groups, namely men and lower--educated individuals, may be at greater risk of lower activity levels may help guide interventions promoting active aging and retirement.

Does Phased Retirement Increase Vitality in Older Workers? Findings from a 3­Year Follow­Up Panel Study.

This study investigates the effects of phased retirement on vitality and how this effect differs for workers dealing with work, family and health strain and low levels of baseline vitality. We used two waves of the NIDI Pension Panel Survey, conducted in 2015 and 2018, in the Netherlands. Data from 1,247 older workers, of whom 10% opted for phased retirement, were analyzed. Vitality is assessed in three ways: a composite measure of vitality, and its subcomponents energy and fatigue. Conditional change regression models demonstrated that transitioning into phased retirement improved vitality and energy levels and reduced fatigue. Older workers with low energy levels at baseline showed greater improvements in energy after using phased retirement: this result was not evident for those with low vitality and high fatigue at baseline. Phased retirement improved vitality for workers with high work strain. Vitality for workers with family or health strain was not improved. Interestingly, the positive effects of phased retirement were equally visible among workers with and without adverse health conditions and caregiving responsibilities. Our study provides evidence on the benefits of phased retirement as a method to sustainably ensure healthy aging of not only vulnerable but all older workers.

Motivational Drivers of Temporal Dynamics in Postretirement Work.

OBJECTIVES: Many retirees continue to work in retirement, but the temporal dynamics of this process are not well understood. This article examined the extent to which retirees increase, decrease, and exit their work engagement over time. We hypothesized that different motives for postretirement work-financial, social, personal, and organizational-have differential affects on changes in work extent. METHODS: We analyzed 7 waves of the HEalth, Aging and Retirement Transitions in Sweden study (n = 3,123). Postretirement work was defined as working for pay while receiving pension benefits. Changes in work extent were estimated with multistate models and examined in relation to the 4 motives. RESULTS: Results showed a gradual decrease in work extent following retirement. Financial motives increased the likelihood to take up more work and decreased the likelihood to reduce work hours. Social motives increased the likelihood to reduce and exit work, while personal motives decreased the likelihood for those same pathways. Organizational (demand-driven) motives increased the likelihood to stop working. DISCUSSION: Our findings suggest that financial motives constitute an important driver for taking up more work in retirement, while motives related to the personal meaning of work explain why retirees maintain their level of engagement over time. The social function of work, on the other hand, may be gradually replaced by social activities outside of work, resulting in a gradual disengagement from work. Finally, demand-driven motives appear insufficient to remain in the labor force, highlighting the need to acknowledge the diversity of motives for continuing to work.

Children of the Revolution: The Impact of 1960s and 1970s Cultural Identification on Baby Boomers' Views on Retirement.

There is widespread speculation that baby boomers will make significant changes to the retirement landscape. Some attribute these changes, at least in part, to countercultural movements this generation pioneered during the sixties and seventies. However, empirical investigation into the long-term impact of countercultural identification in youth is scarce. To address this, our study examines associations between baby boomers' retirement views and identification with counterculture. Using data from 6024 pre-retired Dutch older workers, we investigate whether greater identification with counterculture is associated with more active retirement views. Our results show that greater identification with counterculture is associated with more active retirement views, even when controlling for potential confounders. Beyond highlighting the diversity of the baby boom generation, these findings support the idea that (counter)cultural identity in youth has an impact across the life course and may therefore have implications for other key questions of life's third age beyond retirement.

Impact of Retirement on Sleep Problems Among Older Workers and Their Partners.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Sleep problems are a public health burden and have adverse health consequences in older adults. Despite sleep being a shared biological process between couples, to date, there have not been any studies that have assessed the association between retirement and sleep in older couples. The objective of this study was to examine the impact of retirement on diagnosed sleep problems in older Dutch couples. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: This study used data from 2 waves of the Netherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic Institute Pension Panel Study for older Dutch adults living with a partner (n = 3,726). Logistic regression models examined the strength of association between retirement and sleep problems, while accounting for the moderating role of relationship characteristics. RESULTS: Retirement was associated with decreased odds of sleep problems at Wave 2 (odds ratio [OR] = 0.60, 95% confidence interval [95% CI] = 0.46-0.78). Lower relationship quality was associated with increased odds of sleep problems in the fully adjusted model (OR = 1.81, 95% CI = 1.32-2.49). Having a partner with sleep problems was associated with an increased risk of sleep problems as well (OR = 1.51, 95% CI = 1.07-2.13). There was evidence of effect modification by relationship quality (OR = 1.87, 95% CI = 1.05-3.31). DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS: Retirement and sleep do not occur in a social vacuum and have implications beyond the individual level. More research is therefore needed to understand the impact of sleep and its health consequences on older coupled workers. Such research may provide valuable insights for the management and treatment of sleep problems and may have implications for the public health of aging communities.

Subjective life expectancy and actual mortality: results of a 10-year panel study among older workers.

This research examined the judgemental process underlying subjective life expectancy (SLE) and the predictive value of SLE on actual mortality in older adults in the Netherlands. We integrated theoretical insights from life satisfaction research with existing models of SLE. Our model differentiates between bottom-up (objective data of any type) and top-down factors (psychological variables). The study used data from the first wave of the Netherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic Institute Work and Retirement Panel. This is a prospective cohort study among Dutch older workers. The analytical sample included 2278 individuals, assessed at age 50-64 in 2001, with vital statistics tracked through 2011. We used a linear regression model to estimate the impact of bottom-up and top-down factors on SLE. Cox proportional hazard regression was used to determine the impact of SLE on the timing of mortality, crude and adjusted for actuarial correlates of general life expectancy, family history, health and trait-like dispositions. Results reveal that psychological variables play a role in the formation of SLE. Further, the results indicate that SLE predicts actual mortality, crude and adjusted for socio-demographic, biomedical and psychological confounders. Education has an additional effect on mortality. Those with higher educational attainment were less likely to die within the follow-up period. This SES gradient in mortality was not captured in SLE. The findings indicate that SLE is an independent predictor of mortality in a pre-retirement cohort in the Netherlands. SLE does not fully capture educational differences in mortality. Particularly, higher-educated individuals underestimate their life expectancy.

What We Need to Know About Retirement: Pressing Issues for the Coming Decade.

The current landscape of retirement is changing dramatically as population aging becomes increasingly visible. This review of pressing retirement issues advocates research on (a) changing meanings of retirement, (b) impact of technology, (c) the role of housing in retirement, (d) human resource strategies, (e) adjustment to changing retirement policies, (f) the pension industry, and (g) the role of ethnic diversity in retirement.

[Symposium The future of informal care]. / Symposium De toekomst van de informele zorg.

Due to the reform of long term care in 2015, there is growing concern about whether groups at risk receive the care they need. People in need of care have to rely more on help from their social network. The increased need for informal care requires resilience and organizational skills of families, but also of volunteers, professionals and employers. What does this mean for the provision of informal care in the next decennia? The symposium 'The future of informal care', organized on January 26 2017 by the National Institute for Social Research and the Institute for Societal Resilience of the Vrije Universiteit, addressed possible answers to this question. In her inaugural speech Alice de Boer discussed social inequality as possible determinant and outcome of informal care. Some conclusions:Until 2050 the absolute number of 75-plus doubled to about 3 million persons, but the number of informal caregivers will decrease. In addition to the importance of social and economic resources (the 'have & have-nots'), the ability to arrange care (the 'can & can-nots') gains importance.Almost half of the older employers provides informal care just before retirement. Flexibility in working hours and work location facilitates combining work and care, but about half of the employers indicates that partial retirement and working at home are no options.Informal caregivers and professionals often provide care from comparable perspectives and identities. Addressing similarities rather than differences improves their chances for collaboration.The number of adult children providing household care to older parents increased between 2002 and 2014. This suggests an increase in family solidarity, but current reform policies may increase the gender inequality in caregiving families.Spouses and children remain primary caregivers in the future, preferably supported by many different types of caregivers. Not everybody has the capabilities to organize and direct such a large care network.Providing informal care increases the risk for overburden and absence at work or education. Informal caregivers at risk remain, also in the future, women, spouses, migrants, and younger carers.

Who opts for self-employment after retirement? A longitudinal study in the Netherlands.

Self-employment among older age groups is rising. A better understanding of the role of self-employment in extending the working lives of individuals is, therefore, relevant from a policy perspective. By bridging the gap in the literature on work/retirement decision-making and entrepreneurship, the present study examines the factors associated with entry into self-employment post-retirement, after a worker has left a regular salaried position. This decision is modelled as a choice between full retirement and prolonged labour force participation, in the form of either a typical wage-providing job or self-employment. Data were derived from the Netherlands Interdisciplinary Demographic Institute Work and Retirement Panel, an ongoing longitudinal survey of older workers (50 years and over) employed by three private sector organisations and employed as civil servants in the Netherlands. These data were then analysed using multinomial logistic regression analysis. The results of this study show that the decision to pursue self-employment is primarily taken by retirees with relatively high levels of financial and human capital (wealth and educational attainment), those possessing entrepreneurial attitudes (high self-efficacy scores) and those who perceive their retirements to be completely involuntary. The results lend support to self-employment being selected as a postretirement path through opportunity rather than out of necessity. The fact that the retirements of the studied population were generally quite early, while not considered involuntary also suggests that the timing of the decision to retire may be driven by the emergence of new (business) opportunities.

A review of theoretical and empirical advancements.

In this article, we review both theoretical and empirical advancements in retirement adjustment research. After reviewing and integrating current theories about retirement adjustment, we propose a resource-based dynamic perspective to apply to the understanding of retirement adjustment. We then review empirical findings that are associated with the key research questions in this literature: (a) What is the general impact of retirement on the individual? and (b) What are the factors that influence retirement adjustment quality? We also highlight important future research directions that may be fruitful for psychologists to pursue in this area.

Living longer, working longer? The impact of subjective life expectancy on retirement intentions and behaviour.

BACKGROUND: Virtually all Western countries are seeking to bring retirement ages more in line with increases in longevity. The central question in this article is whether individuals choose a retirement age that fits their life expectancy. This would be ideal from a public policy perspective. The present study aims to test empirically whether retirement planning varies with expectations of survival among a sample of older employees in the Netherlands. Two questions are addressed: (i) what are older employees' expectations of their remaining lifetime, and what factors influence this subjective life expectancy? (ii) Are individuals who perceive longer life horizons (high subjective life expectancy) more inclined to retire later than people who expect to live shorter? METHODS: Using data from a panel study on retirement behaviour in the Netherlands (N = 1621 older employees aged 50-60 years), regression and survival models are estimated to examine the effect of subjective life expectancy on retirement planning and behaviour. RESULTS: The results indicate that subjective life expectancy is a factor that is taken into account in retirement decision making, at least as far as retirement intentions are concerned. Older employees with longer time horizons have a preference for later retirement. When it comes to actual behaviour, however, time horizon does not appear to play a role. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that particularly employees with a high perceived life expectancy and an intention to work longer do not succeed in carrying their intentions into effect.

Effects of retirement voluntariness on changes in smoking, drinking and physical activity among Dutch older workers.

BACKGROUND: Although several studies have investigated the association of health behaviors with retirement, none has examined this relationship in the context of retirement voluntariness. METHODS: Using data from the 2001 and 2007 waves of a panel study of retirement in the Netherlands, we used multinomial logistic regression models to investigate the impact of retirement voluntariness on changes in smoking, alcohol use, and physical activity. Participants included 1604 individuals, aged 50-64 years, who were employed in 2001. RESULTS: During the 6-year follow-up, 884 (55%) sample members retired: 676 (42%) perceived their retirement as voluntary and 208 (13%) perceived their retirement as involuntary. Results of multinomial logistic analyses indicated that, relative to non-retired participants (n = 720), the voluntarily retired had higher risk of increased physical activity [relative risk ratio (RR) = 2.90, 95% confidence interval (CI): 2.19-3.84] and lower risk of decreased physical activity (RR = 0.35, 95% CI: 0.22-0.56). The involuntarily retired had both higher risk of increased smoking (RR = 3.68, 95% CI: 1.45-9.30) and lower risk of decreased smoking (RR = 0.50, 95% CI: 0.25-0.99), lower risk of decreased alcohol use (RR = 0.47, 95% CI: 0.29-0.73), and both higher risk of increased physical activity (RR = 2.14, 95% CI: 1.47-3.13) and lower risk of decreased physical activity (RR = 0.46, 95% CI: 0.23-0.92). CONCLUSION: Accounting for the perceived voluntariness of retirement is essential to obtaining a clear assessment of the behavioral effects of this type of labor force departure.

Adjustment to and satisfaction with retirement: two of a kind?

Multiactor panel data on 778 Dutch employees were used to examine adjustment to and satisfaction with retirement. Regression analyses revealed that adjustment and satisfaction are related, but not identical. Adjustment problems arise from preretirement anxiety about the social consequences of retirement and from a lack of control over the decision. Retirement satisfaction is primarily related to the individual's access to key resources: finances, health, and the marital relationship. The study shows that the retirement transition is multidimensional. The transition involves two developmental challenges: adjustment to the loss of the work role and the social ties of work, and the development of a satisfactory postretirement lifestyle. Making a distinction between these two aspects of the retirement experience is important for a better understanding of the psychological process following retirement.

Involuntary retirement: the role of restrictive circumstances, timing, and social embeddedness.

OBJECTIVES: This study examined perceptions of involuntary retirement. We investigated the extent to which differences in how retirement is perceived stem from differences in (a) restrictive circumstances, (b) the older worker's preferences for retirement, (c) timing, and (d) social embeddedness. METHODS: Using multiactor panel data from 778 Dutch older workers who experienced the transition into retirement, we estimated an ordered logistic model to explain perceptions of involuntary retirement. RESULTS: This study showed that the way in which a person experiences retirement from the labor force is not influenced solely by factors that diminish the older worker's amount of choice (health and organizational constraints) but also relates to the older worker's social environment (social timing and social network influences). DISCUSSION: The way he or she frames the retirement transition in social relationships within the family and at work affects the older worker's subjective experience of retirement.

Couples' adjustment to retirement: a multi-actor panel study.

OBJECTIVE: This study examines adjustment to retirement by couples. For both older workers and their partners, we investigate the extent to which adjustment is influenced by the context in which the transition is made and psychological factors shaped by individual expectations and evaluations prior to retirement. Moreover, we examine the extent to which partners influence each other in the process of adjusting to retirement. METHODS: With use of multi-actor panel data from 559 older Dutch couples who experienced the transition into retirement of one of the partners, ordinary least squares, and three-stage least squares regression models are used to explain adjustment to retirement by both partners. RESULT: Adjustment to retirement is influenced by the context in which the transition is made as well as individual psychological factors. A strong "quantitative" attachment to work (full-time jobs, long work histories), a lack of control over the transition, retirement anxiety (negative preretirement expectations), and low scores on self-efficacy are predictors of difficult adjustment. The extent to which partners influence each other in the process of adjusting to retirement appears to be limited. DISCUSSION: Retirement affects both partners, albeit in a different way. Retirement preparation programs should pay attention to the fact that adjustment is an individualized process experienced differently by each partner.